New genetic research reveals the origin of the Hun Empire

In the late 4th century, a powerful nomadic force emerged in Europe, upending the region's political and social order. The Huns, once an unknown entity to the Roman world, arrived north of the Black Sea around 370 CE.

Their sudden presence disrupted established groups like the Goths and the Alans, triggering migrations that would shake the Roman Empire to its core. Ammianus Marcellinus, a contemporary Roman historian, described them as a strange and formidable people. Even today, their origins remain a topic of heated debate among historians and archaeologists.

One prevailing theory links the Huns to the Xiongnu, a powerful confederation that ruled the Eurasian steppe from around 200 BCE to 100 CE. The Xiongnu controlled vast territories, stretching from modern Mongolia to Inner Asia. Their empire eventually collapsed in the 1st century CE, giving rise to smaller nomadic groups that were later absorbed by the Xianbei and other steppe cultures.

While linguistic similarities exist between the terms "Xiongnu" and "Hun," the exact relationship remains unclear. The lack of written records and a 300-year gap between the fall of the Xiongnu and the appearance of the Huns in Europe makes direct links difficult to establish. Still, researchers continue to search for evidence that might bridge this historical divide.

As the Huns advanced into Europe, they established dominance over the Carpathian Basin, toppling the Sarmatian Kingdom and Roman Pannonia around 400 CE. This transition left a lasting mark on the archaeological record. Some settlements and cemeteries were abandoned, with evidence of destruction in certain areas. However, other sites suggest continuity, where local communities adapted under Hunnic rule.

A striking feature of this period is the emergence of a distinct material culture. Grave goods such as brooches, beads, combs, and polyhedral earrings became common, reflecting a blend of Roman, Sarmatian, and steppe influences. The practice of artificial cranial deformation (ACD), where skulls were deliberately elongated, was also widespread. This custom, found in many Hunnic and steppe-associated burials, likely served as a marker of elite status.

Despite the cultural blending, unmistakable steppe elements appear in certain burial sites. North–south grave orientations, sacrificial cauldrons, and equestrian-related artifacts suggest links to traditions seen in the Xiongnu and other nomadic groups of the Eurasian steppe. However, these influences were not uniform across the region. Eastern-style burial customs were scattered and coexisted with local traditions, indicating a complex and fluid cultural landscape.

After the fall of the Hunnic Empire in 454 CE, the Gepids took control of the eastern Carpathian Basin. Surprisingly, this transition did not erase Hunnic traditions. Smaller cemeteries continued to be used, and certain burial customs, like ACD, persisted into the Gepidic period. This suggests that the mixed population of the Hunnic era remained in the region, contributing to the area's evolving identity.

To better understand the Huns’ origins and their genetic impact on Europe, a team of researchers analyzed ancient DNA from 370 individuals spanning nearly 800 years. The study, part of the European Research Council’s HistoGenes project, included samples from sites across the Mongolian steppe, Central Asia, and the Carpathian Basin. Among these, 35 newly sequenced genomes provided key insights.

The findings revealed that, contrary to popular belief, the Huns did not introduce a large wave of steppe ancestry into Europe. Instead, the majority of the population in the Carpathian Basin remained genetically similar to earlier European inhabitants. However, a distinct subset of individuals—primarily those buried in “eastern-type” graves—displayed significant East Asian ancestry.

One of the study’s most intriguing discoveries came from identical-by-descent (IBD) analysis, which traces shared genetic segments. A handful of Hunnic-period individuals in Europe were found to have direct genetic links to high-ranking elites from the Xiongnu Empire. These connections included an individual buried in one of the most elaborate Xiongnu tombs ever discovered.

Guido Alberto Gnecchi-Ruscone, a researcher from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, remarked, "It came as a surprise to discover that a few of these Hun-period individuals in Europe share IBD links with some of the highest-ranking imperial elite individuals from the late Xiongnu Empire."

Despite these connections, the broader genetic picture of the Huns was highly diverse. The study showed that rather than a single migrating population, the Huns in Europe represented a coalition of various groups, shaped by centuries of mobility and cultural exchange across Eurasia.

Zsófia Rácz of Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest explained, "DNA and archaeological evidence reveal a patchwork of ancestries, pointing to a complex process of mobility and interaction rather than a mass migration."

The genetic findings, published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), highlight key differences between the Huns and later steppe migrations, such as the Avars, who arrived in Europe two centuries later. The Avars migrated directly from East Asia after their empire fell to the Turks, retaining strong genetic ties to their homeland for centuries.

In contrast, the Huns’ journey to Europe was gradual, spanning multiple generations and involving intermixing with various populations along the way. Walter Pohl of the Austrian Academy of Sciences noted, "The ancestors of Attila’s Huns took many generations on their way westward and mixed with populations across Eurasia."

This research sheds new light on how ancient societies in the Carpathian Basin adapted to migration and conquest. While the Huns reshaped the political landscape, their genetic footprint outside of elite burials remained relatively small. Most people in the region retained European ancestry, incorporating steppe influences into their existing traditions rather than being replaced by a new population.

Zuzana Hofmanová of the Max Planck Institute summarized, "Although the Huns dramatically reshaped the political landscape, their actual genetic footprint—outside of certain elite burials—remains limited."

Johannes Krause, director of the Department of Archaeogenetics at the Max Planck Institute, emphasized the significance of this study in resolving long-standing historical debates. "From a broader perspective, the study underscores how cutting-edge genetic research, in combination with careful exploration of the archaeological and historical context, can resolve centuries-old debates about the composition and origin of past populations."

This research not only deepens our understanding of the Huns but also highlights the dynamic interactions that shaped Eurasian history. While the full story of their origins may never be completely unraveled, modern genetics is helping to connect the dots across centuries and continents, bringing new clarity to one of history’s most enigmatic peoples.

Note: Materials provided above by The Brighter Side of News. Content may be edited for style and length.

Like these kind of feel good stories? Get The Brighter Side of News' newsletter.